Twentieth Century Reform Movements in India/ Kenneth Jones/

Kenneth Jones begins with an overview of the socio-political climate of 20^th century India, and identifies three crucial modifications that affected the way socio-political movements functioned, succeeded, or failed.  Later, he identifies five socio-religious movement that began in 19^th century and extended into the 20^th century: Ramakrishna Mission and Math, The Radhasoami Satsang, Arya Samaj, Ahmadiyas, Swaminarayan Guru of Kerala

First, the secular nationalism introduced by Indian National Congress that came in waves of Gandhian movements. Second, is a contrasting communalism and severe religious conflicts that arose as a counter-design to nationalist peak. The third major modification in Indian society was th allocation of sepereate electorates to muslim population. The census (as Anderson has theorized) defined religious communities, counted them, and presented them as social and economic units. He identifies this constitutional reform as the factor that stimulated and reinforced a new form of political institution. These led to the formation of the first ‘religio-political’ groups in India. Muslim league was founded on the basis of Muslim nationalism, and expressed a concept of Pakistan. Hindu Mahasabha was formed under the leadership Savarkar and expounded a Hindu nationalism opposing secular nationalism of INC. Similarly, Sikhs too moved towards their own religious nationalism. Jones argues that while in 19^th century most new ideas and symbols would turn into some form religion, in the 20^th century, the ideologies that travelled from the west.

Ramakrishna Math and Mission:

-Expanded across India and to the US after Vivekanada’s death.

- Managed by Swami Brahmananada and the trustee board of Belur Math

- Often the mission carried out local initiatives without involvement from the central board. But the activities of mission and math often overlapped.

- Spread to US cities through Vedanta society – but the role here was different since there was no social service involved – only teaching of Vedanta doctrines.